Rowland Hill - Father Stamp World

Rowland Hill

Rowland Hill - Father Stamp World
Sir Rowland Hill was the son of a teacher who was born on December 3, 1795. His father Thomas Wright Hill and his family live in Kidderminster, England. Thomas child of six men and two women. One of his sons son named Rowland Hill. Britain during the war - France in the late 18th century, Thomas Hill family life and the poor suffer. Rowland was living in a small straitened circumstances. But education is instilled by the Thomas family, his children not to make trouble, otherwise they remain studious or diligent reading quality books, which can improve their fighting spirit.


One of the books are in great demand character development among children, at the time, among other works of Miss Edgeworth. The books of Miss Edgeworth was also favored small Rowland. The moral messages pangarang Rowland impressive. Perhaps because Rowland avid reader of books about the character development makes him grow into a vibrant young man of steel, diligent, innovative, and creative. That's all push his goal to achieve a dignified and rewarding life for many people. In the age of 11 years, Rowland Hill began helping his father to manage the school. At the time of Rowland's talent began to appear. He was industrious, tenacious, patient, intelligent, and creative. Rowland long enough engaged in education.



In the age of 30, Rowland moved the city, from Birmingham to a town near London. Rowland in the city with his brother founded a special school at Bruce Castle, Tottenham. His efforts in education run smoothly and successfully. Rowland introduced in school education system is called; Hazlewood:. Philosophy of education system are: dare speak the truth and dare to defend the truth. That is one of basic democracy. And that's one of Rowland's vision and mission schools. In addition disciplined life should be owned by all students, especially for all educators. Rowland is very like the business school.



He was very diligent, disciplined, and consistently led the school. In fact, he often worked for 15 hours a day to school. This makes health declined. As a result, the doctor, he told lots of rest. After his health began to improve and felt he was healthy, Rowland no longer take care of his school, but working in a foundation, whose purpose is to disseminate knowledge and technology. Rowland is also engaged in the social field, the vision-mission to reduce poverty and reduce crime. Step forward in the social field that is set up charities that aim to empower communities in South Australia. When the continent of Australia was a colony of Great Britain.

The social agency on the initiative e.g. Wakerfield. Rowland became secretary of the social body. In the meantime, Rowland continues to actively pursue his hobby in the field of printing, the science of administration and taxation. At the same time the transport industry and thrive. It is about sending letters and goods increasingly crowded. Rowland saw the opportunity. Shipping rates letters or articles for Rowland should be regulated, can not be allowed to continue, let alone figure Scientists Inventors - Rowland Hill - Mr. World Stamps - Inventors Scientists Figures expensive or free. He argues that the delivery of mail or goods can be used as a source of cash income for the kingdom. Then in 1837 Rowland Hill suggested to the British Parliament:



(1) The cost of mailing must be affordable to the public. Cheap postage which is expected to be more and more people send letters, and more and more money into government coffers.
(2) To increase the number of the sender of the mail, postage rates should be uniform, regardless of mileage accounted for mail delivery. (3) To avoid the problems of delivery, postage must be paid in advance.


You do this by attaching a small piece of paper, name stamps. This idea arose after discovery of abuse of the services performed a pair of teenagers in the UK. The couple separated a distance of their homes far away. At one point, the two teens had agreed to make certain signs that are only known to them both. Then, they repeatedly send the letter without pay. Apparently, the young man wrote a letter earlier to the signs that only they know. After the letter reached the hands of women, said in the introduction, that he did not know the sender of the letter. Of course, before he said, he had first read the signs listed on the mailing envelope. Thus, the girl free of postal charges, because the letter is returned again.


By Sir Rowland Hill, in the presence of the adverse events that post, then diajukannyalah proposal to Parliament that contains just the renewal of the existing postal system, postal rates are the same for all parts of the UK up to the letter that weighs half an ounce, to avoid misuse mailing costs, the costs must be prepaid by gluing a piece of paper marks the settlement. That's a sign of redemption we now refer to as postage stamps. Rowland Hill was thought to be the basis of economic theory also raises a lot of disagreement among members of parliament. In 1840 Rowland suggestions or ideas for using stamps received by the parliament of Great Britain. Only here and then the birth of a stamp, a small piece of paper that became a sign of mailing payment. Not surprisingly, Rowland Hill later dubbed as the Father of the World Stamps. It was then that the world knows the function of stamps, of franco said.


Sir Rowland Hill received a knighthood Knight and the right to use the title Sir. On 17-8-1879 Sir Rowland Hill died in London. In Indonesia, the first time the stamp was introduced on 1 April 1864, a picture of King Willem III. During its development, the utilization of stamps now not only as a sign of full payment for the delivery of mail, but postage is also used as a source of information in a broad sense. Especially after the establishment of the UPU (Universal Postale Union) in 1874, the EDAR stamps are becoming increasingly widespread. Added in the 19th century, more and more people are collecting philatelic items, this led to the appeal pranko as the larger collection of objects, especially the variation of the shape and design of stamps of the world .. Stamps can also be used as a teaching tool to recognize the history, culture, flora and fauna, technology, and more. Not only that, collecting postage stamps can also exercise patience, perseverance, thoroughness, accuracy, and encourage people to an activity or activities that are positive in nature.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan Biography

Jabir Ibn Hayyan

Jabir ibn Hayyan was a chemist, pharmacy, physics, filosoft, and astronomer who lived during the 7th century. He has been able to change the perception of natural events which at the time was regarded as something that can not be predicted a science that can be understood and studied by humans. Discoveries in chemistry is also the basis for the development of modern chemistry and chemical refinement at this time.

Jabir is the scientist who discovered hydrochloric acid, nitric asm, acetic acid, distillation techniques, and crystallization techniques. He also finds a solution of aqua regia, the incorporation of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid to dissolve the gold.

Jabir able to apply their ability in the field of chemicals into the process of making iron and other metals, as well as rust prevention. He also applies the use of manganese dioxide in glass making. In fact, he was the first who noted that the warming of wine will lead to a flammable gas. It is then clear the way for Al-Razi to find ethanol.

If we know the non-metal and metal in the classification of compounds, then look at what was first done Jabir. He proposed the following three groups of compounds:

1.Spirit, which evaporates when heated, such as campor arsenic, and ammonium chloride.
2.Metal, such as gold, silver, lead, copper and iron.
3.Stones which can be converted into powder form.

In medieval times, research on the chemistry Jabir is translated into latin dab into a standard textbook for the chemists in Europe. Some of them are al-Kimya assembly line are translated in 1144 and Al-Sab'een the terjemahanya edition published in 1187.

Jabir also some writings by Marcelin Berthelot translated into several books, the Book of the kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury. Some technical terms are found and used by Jabir also has become part of the international scientific vocabulary, for example, the term "alkali", etc

Biography of Lee DeForest

Lee DeForest

In addition to Marconi, who participated instrumental in the development of radio technology was Lee DeForest. He is a physicist from the United States who managed to find a triode or audion tube in 1906. De Forest was born in Council Bluff, Iowa, United States on August 26, 1873. He is often called the father of radio, television grandfather, a doctor of physics, and has successfully created 300 inventions.

Triode or audion tube was an important tool that is widely used in radio, telephone, radar, television, and computers. In 1912, De Forest found that the triode or audion tube amplifier can be used as an electrical signal and power oscillations. When the triode widely used in various communications tools, but since 1947 triode transistor is replaced by technology. Although the technology he invented triode replaced by other technologies, but De Forest was still regarded as a leading figure in the field of electronics.

De Forest was born of a family pastor. His father was a preacher and fanatic who wants to prepare De Forest to be a priest like him. When he was 6 years old, she and her family moved to Alabama. As a good priest, the family De Forest has always defended the weaker. De Forest's father founded a school for Negroes despite getting huge opposition from the white The people.

De Forest students with a strong and disciplined by his father to become a pastor. Even so, it did not dampen the interest and talent in the world of machines. He was not further explore the science of divinity, but instead to devote his attention in engine technology. At the age of 30 years he liked to make a mini steam engine and locomotive mini.

When he was 20 years (1893), De Forest received at Yale University. Due to the limitations of the family economy, De Forest was forced to attend classes while working rough. Many people believed that the actual De Forest did not include students who are smart. Nevertheless, in 1899 he earned a doctorate of physics, with a dissertation on radio waves.

After earning his doctorate, De Forest worked at Western Electric Company in
Chicago, United States. He worked on the dynamo, telephone, and laboratory experiments. In 1902, De Forest established the telegraph company. Subsequently in 1907, he founded the phone company. But due to lack of talent in
entrepreneurship, the company finally  insolvent De Forest. The disadvantage lies in the
the difficulty in selecting good employees and easily deceived by others. Of
In terms of personality, De Forest, including people who have trouble making decisions, individualistic, and egocentric. After a career for about 55 years,insolvent De Forest last breath on June 30, 1961 in Hollywood, California at the age of 88 years.

David Ricardo .Classical Economics Figures

David Ricardo

David Ricardo (18 April 1772-11 September 1823) was an English political economist, often credited with the economy in a systematic, and is one of the most influential of the classical economists, along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill.

He is also a member of Parliament, businessmen, financiers and speculators, who collected a considerable personal fortune. Perhaps the most important contribution is the law of comparative advantage, the fundamental argument in favor of free trade between countries and between individual specialization. Ricardo argued that there is mutual benefit from trade (or exchange) even if one party (eg resource-rich countries, highly skilled artisan) is more productive in every possible area than its trading partners (eg resource-poor country, unskilled labor), during each concentrating on activities where it has relative productivity advantage


Biography

David Richardo Englishman who lived in the early 18 th century who place great importance on the role of the business to move dynamically in order to drive the economy of a country. Authored a book entitled "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). David believes that with the increase in capital is the key to economic growth in the nation, and the only way to do it by encouraging the production sector to get maximum profit.

David Richardo believe that the labor factor is most important in achieving the prosperity of a State. He also noted that as population increases the level of wages earned income or they will drop to a level where the wage was not enough to support their needs.

Along with population growth tanahpun prices soared, and this will decrease the amount of profits earned from the production sector. Modalpun growth is inhibited which would lower the economic growth pattern. However, Richardo believe that when this happens, the production sector have been first spread throughout the country so that its impact will be resolved soon and the economy may soon recover.

The theory put forward David Richardo many other economists influence. Karl Marx influenced Richardo through labor theory of value (labor theory of value) which explains that the value of an item is determined by the amount of labor required in the manufacture of goods production. John Stuart Mills also uses the theory of David Richardo in its efforts to make social reforms.


Personal life

Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third of 17 children of Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin who had just moved from the Dutch Republic. His father was a successful stockbroker.
At the age of 21, Ricardo eloped with Anne Quaker, Priscilla Wilkinson, which led to estrangement from his family. His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again.


Without family support, he started his own business as a stockbroker, where he became quite successful thanks to the connection he made while working with his father.
During the Battle of Waterloo, he bet on the victory of France and Britain invested in securities. By the time he retired from the Stock Exchange at the age of 43, his fortune is estimated at around £ 600,000. He then purchased and moved to Gatcombe Park, Gloucestershire real, now owned and lived in the Princess Anne, Princess Royal.


At the time of her marriage, Ricardo disconnected from Judaism and became Unitarian.He who has eight children, including three children, of whom Osman Ricardo (1795-1881; MP for Worcester 1847-1865) and the other David Ricardo (1803-1864, MP for Stroud 1832-1833), a member of parliament, while the third, Mortimer Ricardo, served as an officer in the Life Guards and a deputy lieutenant Oxfordshire. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society.His daughter Sarah Ricardo-Porter, who was married to George R. Porter and is a writer in her own right (eg, conversation in arithmetic).
Ricardo became interested in economics after reading Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations in 1799 on vacation in Bath England resort. This is the first contact Ricardo with the economy. He wrote his first article at age 37 and the economy in ten years he reached the peak of his fame.
In 1819, Ricardo sat in the House of Commons, representing Portarlington, a small town Irish rotten. He held the chair, which was originally provided to him by his friend Richard "Conversation" Sharp, until his death in 1823. In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-on-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws.
Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill, who encouraged him in his political ambitions and writings about the economy. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in the community. He also is a member of the London property, then become a member of Malthus on Political Economy Club, and members of King Club.

Paul Bracq -French Famous Car Designer.

Paul Bracq (born December 13, 1933, Bordeaux, France) is an automotive designer best known for his work in Citroën, Peugeot, and Mercedes-Benz.


Bracq career began in Charbonneaux Philippe design studio, where he served as assistant Charbonneaux 'in 1953 and 1954. During this period, the studio producing the design for the French Presidential Limousine built by Citroën, one-time Pegaso coupe, and other automotive design.

Bracq served compulsory military service from 1954's to 1957. Subsequently he worked for Daimler-Benz, to the design studio in Sindelfingen, a post he would hold it for ten years. Bracq style Mercedes with 600, coupé 230SL/250SL/280SL, the coupé 220S, 250 and 220D, W108 and W114 series coupe, and stablemate owned by W115 - all of the 60's and 70's.


After returning to France in 1967, worked for Brissonau Bracq and Lotz, where he was responsible for the design of high-speed TGV passenger trains. During this time, Bracq also responsible for prototype sports car based on BMW 1600Ti and a coupé based on the Simca 1100.


In 1970, Bracq appointed design director of BMW, where he was responsible for the line-of-the-7-Series. His 1973 "Turbo" concept car won the "Concept Car of the Year" by the Revue Automobile Suisse that year; the car to repeat the feat in 1992 at the Concours d'Elegance Bagatelle.
Beginning his work with Peugeot in 1974, including private transport for the pope.
Bracq also active as a judge at many automotive concours, including Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance '.

Thomas Hobbes Life Story

Thomas Hobbes 

Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (born in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, England, 5 April 1588 - died in Derbyshire, England, December 4, 1679 at age 91 years) was a British philosopher who is famous empirisme.His views wing man concept from the standpoint of empiricism- materialism, and a view of human relationships with the state system.
Hobbes has an influence on the entire field of study in the UK and the moral political philosophy, especially through the very famous book "Leviathan". Hobbes not only famous in Britain but also in continental Europe. [Also known as a philosopher, Hobbes also known as a mathematician and scholar klasik.Ia been a math teacher Charles II as well as publishing the work of translation of the Iliad and Odyssey Homeros.


Biography


Early life and education

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was born in Malmesbury, a small town within 25 miles of London.Ia was born on April 15, 1588. When Hobbes was born, the Spanish fleet was attacked Inggris.Ayah Hobbes was a minister in Westport, part of Malmesbury.Ayahnya trouble with the church that fled the city and leaving Hobbes to be raised by his uncle.
In 1603-1608, Hobbes studied at Magdalen Hall, Oxford at the age of 14 years. According to Hobbes's personal testimony, he did not like physics and Aristotelian logic. He preferred to read about the exploration of the discovery of new lands and learn the maps of the earth and the stars That's why astronomy is the science that gets the attention of Hobbes, and continued to work at by Hobbes. Then in the later, Hobbes also regretted that he did not learn mathematics while studying in Oxford.


Jobs in the UK


After his education, got a job as a teacher Hobbes noble family, the family of William Cavendish Cavendish.Murid that Hobbes was an heir to the family. Aside from being a teacher, Hobbes also serves as secretary, friend, and treasurer of the William Cavendish.


In 1614-1615, Hobbes and William traveled to France and Italy, where they learn the language Italia.Sepulangnya to England in 1616, Cavendish associated with Francis Bacon and Hobbes had time to do some secretarial work for Bacon. Together with William, Hobbes became acquainted with the political world, both in thought and praktik.William in 1614 and 1621 is a member of parliament so that Hobbes certainly participate in the sessions of parliament.
William Cavendish died in 1628, and when it has completed the translation of Hobbes Hobbes Thucydides.Karya is a valuable scientific work because it is the first work which is a direct English translation of the Greek language. In addition, where there is a map of the ancient Greek world gathered from many sources and drawn by Hobbes himself.


Within these works, Hobbes showed his pro-British monarchy and not so fond of the democratic system. In the auto-biography, Hobbes says that the historian Thucydides was his favorite because "it shows how incompetent the democratic system".
After the death of William, Hobbes quit his job at the Cavendish family for two years. At that time. He worked again as a teacher of children bangsawan.Pada 1629 until 1630, Hobbes and his disciples traveled to France and Swiss.Di Geneva, during the months of April to June 1630, Hobbes began reading the book Eukleides entitled "Elements" and interested the deductive method Eukleides.
After returning to England, in 1631, Hobbes returned to work at the Cavendish family to become a teacher of the child William. At this time, Hobbes spend time to learn mathematics and other scientific fields.


Period 1630's were the years that are important in the intellectual development of Hobbes. In this period Hobbes attention to science, especially optics, ranging berkembang.Selain, the thought of Hobbes's political philosophy began to evolve, as seen from the book "Elements of Law" is issued at the end of the decade in 1630's.


In 1634, Hobbes and his return trip to mainland Europe, namely France and Italia.Perjalanan was a big influence on the intellectual development of Hobbes because he was acquainted with the scientists and mathematicians from Perancis.Di in auto-biography, Hobbes says that he has studied the principles of natural science in France.


After Hobbes returned to England in October 1636, he uses a lot of time to filsafat.Hal works is because the students have started to mature so that Hobbes has a lot of free time. One of the works of Hobbes's philosophy of science, the earliest was a manuscript of the optics, entitled "Latin Optical MS". The work was completed in 1640. Hobbes also wrote other manuscripts on metaphysics and epistemology.
Hobbes jobs in science and metaphysics in 1630 stopped at the end of the decade's political situation. In 1637, the absolute power of King Charles I began dipersoalkan.Hobbes show support to the king by dedicating the book "Elements of Law" to answer the question of absolute power. [5] The two subsequent works of Hobbes, "De Cive" and "Leviathan", further develop the ideas in the book, although three of the same essence.


In 1640, Hobbes began to consider to stay in Paris with her safety reasons and to further stimulate pemikirannya.Akan but, what is the direct reason of Hobbes's departure from England to France is a debate that occurred in the parliament on November 7, there 1640.Di , the anti-monarchy began to voice opposition to the people who support the pro-monarchy and absolute power. Because Hobbes is anxious to be called to account "Elements of Law", eventually he went to Paris.


In Paris


In Paris, Hobbes quickly merges with the intellectual situation there because his partner is assisted by Mersenne. In 1642, Mersenne also petrified publication of Hobbes 'De Cive'. Through the book, Hobbes established himself as a writer in the field of politics which has a reputation throughout Eropa.Tidak time later, Mersenne also helps publishing some examples of the work of Hobbes in physics and optics in the two-volume compilation in 1644. The title of the work of Hobbes is "Cogitata physico-mathematica" and "Universae". Through Mersenne also, Hobbes can be met in the early 1640's with the French philosopher and scientist.


During the period 1640's, Hobbes gives more attention to physics, metaphysics, and theology rather than philosophy politik.Pada years 1642-1643, Hobbes wrote a work against the Catholic view of an Aristotelian philosopher named Thomas White Later in 1645, engaged in a polemic with Hobbes Anglican theologian who is also named John Bramhall about the nature of free will. Polemic that occurred long enough and takes a long time.


Charles II, Hobbes student in France.


In 1646, Hobbes was asked to become a math teacher for Prince Charles II, son of King Charles I.Pekerjaan brings Hobbes is more intensive in touch with politicians, courtiers, and ecclesiastical officials, all of the parties pro- monarchy. The situation is made re-enter the field politik.Karya Hobbes Hobbes's "Leviathan" was published in the UK with the help of a friend, in April 1651.


In 1648, Hobbes began planning to return to Inggris.Beberapa Shortly thereafter, the British political situation has changed since the year 1649 King Charles I was executed. In France, the situation changed because Mersenne Hobbes also had died, and Gassendi, Hobbes one other friend, moved to southern France. The book "Leviathan" by Hobbes can be seen as a shift in his political views to a more neutral, because there he did not openly claim to be pro-monarchy, but to talk about power saja.Sebaliknya, Hobbes views about religion in the book "Leviathan" Hobbes had a problem with making people around Charles II, especially the agamawan.Hobbes threatened to be brought to justice, and some time later the French church officials decided to bring Hobbes into pengadilan.Karena it, Hobbes fled from France in mid-December 1651, heading to the UK.


Back to london

Upon their return to England, Hobbes lived in London and returned to work before, ie, a lecturer in the family poor bangsawan.Nama will be accepted Hobbes as "Leviathan" does not immediately appear. Many early readers of the book was quite surprised by the content of religion, but did not immediately speak out.
In addition to the clergy, another group who feel disturbed by the book "Leviathan" is the academics of the university-led Hobbes universitas.Hal it received criticism from academics. One of the academics who criticized Hobbes is John Wallis.Mereka involved in the polemic in the field of mathematics for nearly twenty years.
In the era of the 1660s, Hobbes has come under pressure from religious parties because of his views on religion.In the early 1660's there was a rumor that said some of the Bishops of the Anglican Church will establish a sesat.Selain Hobbes was, in 1666, committee of the Board Rakyat (House of Commons) are urged to investigate the book "Leviathan".


Hobbes appears to respond to pressure by publishing the writings of the late decades of the 1660s who openly defend himself from any criticism of the text Hobbes.Beberapa faith, including a brief biography of Hobbes, is "Consider Birthday Mr. Hobbes", adding an appendix to the translation Latin of the "Leviathan" to defend the work of the heresy charges in 1668, an auto-biography in Latin in 1679, and a work of polemic history of the church in Latin, entitled "Historia ecclesiastica" in 1688

End of Life


Various publications that carried Hobbes (plus other works on mathematics and the translation of the Iliad and Odyssey in English Homeros) Hobbes on the proven productivity of the more advanced age. 63 years old when Hobbes "Leviathan" was published, and he continued to write until the age of 91 years old when he died. Hobbes lived with the Cavendish family who gave him protection dam keamanan.Kemudian when Charles II, his former student, gained power in England, Hobbes was pardoned because he fled to England and sided with the anti-monarchy.

Despite Hobbes has loyal followers in England, but he is more respected and have influence in France. He is regarded as one of the greatest philosophers that ever existed, and the book "Leviathan" became famous there.
Hobbes died on December 4, 1679. He suffered from a serious illness since October and a week before he died he was buried in the affected stroke.Hobbes Hault Hukcnall, near Hardwick Hall. On top of his tombstone, there are words written by Hobbes himself: "He dalah an expert, and because of its reputation in many sciences, it is widely known both domestically and abroad.


Thought


Empiricism


The core idea is rooted in the empiricism of Hobbes (empeiria derived from the Greek meaning 'versed in, acquainted with'). Empiricism states that experience is the origin of all knowledge. According to Hobbes, philosophy is a science about the effects or consequences of the fact that it can be observed. All that is determined by certain causes, which follow the laws of science and real science alam.Yang is observable by human senses, and in no way depends on the ratio of men (as opposed to rationalism). By stating that only a true sensual, Hobbes get a guarantee of truth.


Materialism

Hobbes was a materialist. He believes that humans (including the mind, and even God) consists of materi.Meskipun is never explicitly mentioned in his works, Hobbes had attacked his opponent who believe in immaterial things.


On the independence of philosophy

Hobbes is known as one of the pioneers of independence of philosophy.Hobbes argues that all this time, the philosophy of many infiltrated religius.Hobbes confirms the idea that the object of philosophy is the physical objects that move along with their features. According to him, the substance that can not be changed, such as God, and the substance can not be touched empirically, such as spirits, angels, and so on, are not objects of filsafat.Hobbes states that philosophy should limit itself to the issue of control over nature.
Based on such consideration, Hobbes claimed that only four areas in philosophy, namely:
Geometry, which is a reflection of objects in space.
Physics, which is the reciprocal reflection of objects and their motion.
Ethics, which in the sense of close to psikologi.Maksudnya Hobbes, reflection on human desires and feelings as well as mental motions
Politics, which is a reflection on social institutions.
Hobbes states that the four areas are interrelated to one another. Therefore, Hobbes argued that human society and can be viewed through motion and matter in physics.


About the introduction of


As adherents of empiricism, Hobbes assumes that the knowledge derived from experience alone mata.Tidak like the rationalists, the introduction of the reason is simply to have a reasonable mekanis.Pengenalan function begins with the words that refer to certain signs in accordance with the actual habit. Abstract concepts is a mere name, which as the name for images that memory, not the name of the object in itself sendiri.Pengamatan sensory occurs because the motion of objects outside the human-induced stimulation of the senses manusia.Rangsangan is transmitted to the brain, and from the brain to the heart. In the heart there arose a certain reaction that respond to these observations.


Human

Hobbesian view of man begins with the question: what moves people? (What makes him tick?). Here, Hobbes compares man with a watch that moves on a regular basis since there are spare parts in a mechanical saw man dalamnya.Hobbes Man is a mere pile of material that works and moves according to the laws of natural science. For that, he removed all sorts of moral-metaphysical assumptions about people. For example, the view that humans have a social nature, freedom, immortality of the soul, and so on. The soul and mind are only considered as part of the mechanical processes in the body.


After knowing the whole relationship between spare parts of a watch, then we can know the working principle of the cause at hand was moving. Hobbes final conclusions about the human factor in the human psyche, that is lust. The most powerful passions of man is the desire to defend itself, or in other words, fear of loss of Hobbes's rationale nyawa.Dari then formulate his views on the very famous.



State


Hobbes thought about the state contained in his great work entitled "Leviathan.Leviathan is the name of a mythological beast in the Middle East is very wild. In the philosophy of Hobbes, Leviathan is a symbol of a state system. [Like the Leviathan, the state must be absolutely powerful and feared by all subjects, because only in this way human beings can experience order and happiness.
In the view of humans, Hobbes argues that all human behavior is determined by the need to defend themselves or the fear of losing nyawa.Dengan know about it, Hobbes was able to answer the question of how people should behave well, ie mastering their fear of death. When the man made threats and fear, he will be able to control their emotions and desires so that social life can be guaranteed. Therefore, the state must suppress the fear of death of its citizens, so that anyone doing good.


The formation of the state


According to Hobbes, human nature is not social, Humans only have one tendency in him, namely the desire to maintain this trend diri.Karena man hostile and suspicious of every other human being: homo homini lupus! (Man is a wolf to his neighbor). This situation led to a "war of all against all" (Bellum Omnium contra omnes). This is the "natural state" when the state has not been formed.However, if the constant war of all against all, of course, human existence is also threatened. For that, human beings entered into a joint agreement to establish a state, which requires them to live in peace and order.


Status of state

Countries in absolute power and right to determine the fate of its people in order to maintain order and peace.Status absolutely owned the agreement because the state is not a peer, but rather the result of inter-national agreement.That is, in the agreement forming the country, every citizen countries have handed over all their rights to the stateHowever, the state has absolutely no liability whatsoever for its citizens, including the obligation to be accountable to the people.


Countries are above all citizens and absolute power. Then the state is also entitled to demand absolute obedience to the citizens of the existing laws, and provide penalties for noncompliance, including the death penalty. Thus, citizens would suppress the passions and instincts to behave destruktif.Selanjutnya, citizens will choose to obey the law because it has put the fear of death. The loss of freedom of citizens of the country is a price to pay if all people want to live in peace, order and peace.


Restrictions on state power

If state power is so absolute and can not be sued by citizens, not the potential for abuse of power by the state becomes very large? To prevent this, Hobbes states two things.
First, there needs to be awareness of the ruling party about the concept of justice, should be accountable for his actions later in the presence of God in final judgment.


Second, if the state threatens the survival of the citizens, every citizen who has a fear of death will turn destroy the country, before the devastating mereka.Pada such situations, people will return to the "natural state" to further establish a better state, and so on.


Influence

Hobbes's writings, especially the "Leviathan", greatly affects the entire political philosophy and moral philosophy in England in the later period. In continental Europe, Hobbes also brings a strong influence. One of the great philosopher Baruch Spinoza was influenced Hobbes. Spinoza influenced by Hobbes in the political views and also how to relate to the Bible.


Hobbes is also a philosopher, if not the first, which is very influential in the debate between free will and determinism. In addition, he is also one of the most important philosophers of language because he believes that language is not only used to explain the world, but also to demonstrate the behaviors and also to enter into a covenant and a contract.


Then Hobbes was also influential in the study of contractarianism. Contractarianism is part of the moral theories and the politics that uses the idea of ​​social contract theory. Hobbes is one of the traditional social contract philosophers who use the social contract idea to emphasize the role of the state. Here, Hobbes is a pioneer of one of the two moral arguments about the social contract ada.Satu types of moral arguments about the social contract is given by Immanuel Kant.


In addition, Hobbes also the first modern philosopher in the field of sensationalism. Sensationalism is a view that regards all mental states, in particular human cognitive, beraal of composition or associations of mere sensation or feeling.

Mehmet Öz Biograpy

Mehmet Öz

Cengiz Mehmet Oz, born June 11, 1960, age 51 years) or better known as Dr. Oz is a cardiac surgeon from the United States of Turkish descent, the host and also a writer. He is currently co-host and commentator on the show to discuss issues concerning the health of Dr. Oz Show.

Biography of Gregory Pincus (1903-1967)

Gregory Pincus

Gregory Pincus was born 1903 in Woodbine, New Jersey, the son of Russian-Jewish hybrid. He graduated from Cornell in 1924, and received a doctorate from Harvard in 1927. After that he was involved in the investigation work at various institutions, including Harvard and Cambridge and became a professor at Clark for several years. In 1944 he helped Worcester Foundation for biological investigation, and for years after that the lead laboratory. He was the author of more than 250 scientific papers as well as a book The Conquest of Fertility, about the conquest of fertility, published in 1965.


Contraceptive pill, and the American biologist Gregory Pincus held an important roll in this matter. The pills had two terms of importance. In a world desperate to see the danger rapid population growth, a pill that serves as a deterrent. Although less direct, but no less revolutionary, the pill has caused in terms of changes in sexual desire. Never mind that the more widely known than fifteen years, or about that time, there has been a "revolution" in the attitude of gender relations in the United States. There is no doubt, many political factors, economic and social revolution that has affected, but the main factor because it is clear that the biggest pill. At first, fear of bunting that was not expected, a factor that affects many women in terms of having sex before marriage, or even after marriage. Suddenly, the woman presented with a chance of having sexual relations without fear of being so pregnant. By itself, this condition brings a change in attitude and behavior of both parties.

There may be objections to the development of "Enovid" (the first pill deterrent bunting) that it is not as important as people think, because the prevention of pregnancy has been known before. The argument was put aside difference between contraceptive methods and effective techniques that are psychologically acceptable. Before any development of the pill, contraception is recommended by most experts is "diaphragm." Indeed, the diaphragm is safe and reliable, but practice the majority of women are lazy to use it. Quite surprisingly, when the pill for the first time try, thousands of women ready to take the risk of taking a way that has not been tried (and may contain hazards) to prevent pregnant instead of "diaphragm" is clearly evident that safe.

And could also consider the development of "Enovid" is not a victory that really impressive because of swallowing a pill related risks to health and may in time soon in the future the method will be replaced by the pill newer ways and through a tool or a drug more sip. But, naturally, the future method of contraception will only give little improvement because the pill is widely accepted and has been satisfying the parties concerned. (Notably, the period over fifteen years - a period of millions of ordinary Americans to swallow the pill regularly - their passions rise substantially. This fact alone shows that the pill is not the main source of health problems). History will and must record the development of "Enovid" in the 1950's a battering ram an intricate method of birth control that.

Many people have contributed to his mind for the development of the contraceptive pill is ingested through the mouth. Indeed, this issue has become the subject of conversation for a long time; difficulty is that nobody knows exactly what chemical elements that must be put into a pill. Interestingly, the key findings has been discovered since 1937. In that year. A.W. Makepeace, G.L. Weinstein, and M.H. Friedman has been demonstrated that injection of "progesterone" (one of the female sex hormone) can prevent fertilization in animals in the laboratory. But, perhaps because of the injection under the skin is not attractive situation for ways of preventing pregnancy, or perhaps because "progesterone" as it is expensive chemicals, the discovery did not attract much public attention. Not encouraging.

The main development of the new pill began around 1950 when a U.S. biologist, Gregory Pincus, began working on this issue. Clearly, the Margaret Sanger, a longtime advocate of birth control that gives encouragement to Pincus. He will be hard to pick a better person than Gregory Pincus, because Pincus experts in the field of "steroid metabolism" and in the field of reproductive physiology of ruminants beings and also the laboratory director of the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, biology laboratory experiments.

Clearly,


Pincus had combined with his extraordinary technical skill and scientific instincts, able to solve the problems outlined by the deft. Soon he got the assistant Dr. Min-Chueh Chang, an investigator at the Worcester Foundation, conducting experiments "progesterone" on laboratory animals, to see whether it can suppress the fertilization despite being swallowed by mouth. Chang was a successful experiment. This is truly a promising start, especially from the point of the fact that several years before a chemist named Russell Marker had found a way to make a "progesterone" synthetic a cheaper price.

Other contributors are Dr mind. John Rock, who at the instigation of a gyneacolog Pincus conduct experiments. These experiments show that the "progesterone" that is swallowed to prevent conception in women. However, investigations Rock also solves two serious difficulties due to the use of "progesterone" as a contraceptive that is swallowed. First, just hit about 85% fertilization. Second, the dose required is not worth the amount to overcome that.

But Pincus, is convinced that he is on the right track, ready to fill them. He realized, there must be other parts that are chemically similar to "progesterone" but without any constraints. In December 1953 he asked various chemical companies to send examples of "steroids" they produsir synthetic, chemically similar to the "progesterone." Pincus tries chemicals are received, and one thereof "norethynodrel" homemade GD Searle was effective.

This is a favorable solution for Pincus, because when he began his investigations, since 1950, norethynodrel did not even exist! It was synthesized in 1952 by Dr. Frank B. Colton, a biochemist who worked at Searle laboratories, and then patented in his name. But, either Colton or his supervisor at GD Searle does not intend to try to create contraceptive devices that are swallowed, not even when they realize that they actually managed to make it.

Subsequent experiments were carried out by groups of investigators that have been compiled by Pincus pointed out that "norethynodrel" could still be more effective when coupled with a slight mixture of chemicals called "mestranol." Drug combination is then thrown into the market by GD Searle and his company called "Enovid."

By the year 1955 Pincus can smell that the time has come to conduct experiments on a large-scale pill. The experiment began in April 1956, the city of San Yuan, Puerto Rico, under the supervision of Dr. Edris Rice-Wray. Within nine months, the experiment showed how great contraceptive pill to swallow. However, the trial continued again until three years before the "Food and Drug Administration" (a sort of official oversight of food and drugs) approved the marketing of "Enovid" in May 1960.

It is clear that the victory of Gregory Pincus developed the Pill is not alone. Frank Colton is actually creating a "norethynodrel"; clear, Colton and various chemists who paved the way for the results of his work is worth his services taken into account. So did a lot of people working together in groups Pincus, including John Rock, Min-Chueh Chang, and Dr. Celso-Ramon Garcia was not able to put aside all thoughts donations. For that matter, that, Dr. Edris Rice-Wray, Margaret Sanger, and many more that I could not call, they each hold a role in the overall work. But, apparently can not doubt that Gregory Pincus is the most significant figures and the main driving force of the entire project. He was a scientist who decided to devote all my time and effort in the struggle for the investigation of contraceptives by mouth: he is a person who had the scientific and organization that enable the success of the project; he examines the basic ideas, seek funding for the cost of the investigation, and invite talented people work together on projects. He had a vision and certainty and encourage projects to be completed neatly, and it was he who received a major award of this great work.

Bill Gates Biography-Microsoft Chairman

Bill Gates

William Henry "Bill" Gates III (born in Seattle, Washington, October 28, 1955, age 56 years) is a business leader, investor, philanthropist, author from the United States, as well as the former CEO who currently serves as chairman of Microsoft, the software company which he founded with Paul Allen. He still ranks among the richest people in the world and was ranked first from 1995 to 2009, excluding 2008 when he dropped to third.


During his career at Microsoft, Gates has served as CEO and chief software architect, and still the largest individual shareholder with more than 8 percent of common shares perusahaan.Ia also has written several books.


Gates was one of the personal computer revolution-known businessman in the world. Although he is admired by many people, some in the industry [who?] Criticize his business tactics that are considered anti-competitive, an opinion supported by the courts in some cases. [8] [9] In the final stages of his career, Gates did some business philanthropy by donating a large amount of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, founded in 2000.
Gates stepped down as the highest executive officer of Microsoft in January 2000. He still serves as chairman and form the chief software architect position. On June 2006, Gates announced that he will work part-time at Microsoft and full time at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. He gradually delegate all work to Ray Ozzie, chief software architect and Craig Mundie, the highest official Microsoft research and strategy. Last day of work full time at Microsoft's Gates is June 27, 2008. He still works at Microsoft as non-executive chairman.


Early life

Gates was born in Seattle, Washington, from partner William H. Gates, Sr.. and Mary Maxwell Gates, who is a descendant of the English, German, and Scots-Irlandia.Keluarganya including the upper middle; his father was a prominent lawyer, his mother served as a member of the board of directors of First Interstate BancSystem and the United Way, and his father, J. W. Maxwell, the president of a national bank. Gates has a sister named Kristi (Kristianne) and a younger sister named Libby. He was the fourth descendant in a family, but is known as William Gates III or "Trey" because his father bears the suffix "At the beginning of his life, Gates' parents expect her to a career in hukum.Ketika Gates was young, his family often attend church congregation.


At age 13, he attended Lakeside School, an exclusive prep school in Seattle. When he was in eighth grade, the Mothers Club at the school take advantage of the permission of the Lakeside School rummage sale to buy a Model 33 ASR Teletype terminal and part time computer using computer General Electric (GE) for high school students. Gates is interested in programming the GE system using a BASIC , and out of math classes to pursue his desire. He wrote his first computer program on this machine, an implementation of tic-tac-toe that allow computer users to play against the computer. Gates was fascinated with these machines and how machines execute software code perfectly. When he thought back on those times, he says, "There is something that fits with the machine.


After the Mothers Club donation runs out, he and other students spent time working on several systems, including DEC PDP minicomputers. One such system is a PDP-10 owned by the Computer Center Corporation (CCC), which banned four Lakeside students-Gates, Paul Allen, Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans-for the summer after they were caught exploiting a bug in the operating system to gain time free computer.
Toward the end of the ban, the four students offered to find bugs in CCC's software in exchange for computer time. Instead of using the system via Teletype, Gates went to CCC's offices and studied source code programs that run on the system, including programs in FORTRAN, LISP, and machine language. Agreement with CCC continued until 1970, when the company went bankrupt. The following year, Information Sciences, Inc..


employs four Lakeside students to write a payroll program in COBOL language and give them computer time and royalties. Once managers are aware of its programming abilities, Gates wrote the school a computer program to create student classroom schedules. He modified the code so that it is placed in classes dominated by women. He then stated that "hard to pull away from the machine that I can use to demonstrate a clear success. At the age of 17, Gates and Allen formed a joint venture called Traf-O-Data, to create traffic counters based on the Intel 8008. [21] In early 1973, Bill Gates worked as a congressional aide in the U.S. House of Representatives.


Gates graduated from Lakeside School in 1973. He obtained a value of 1590 of total 1600 on the SAT exam and enrolled at Harvard College in the fall of 1973. At Harvard, he met Steve Ballmer, who later replaced Gates as CEO of Microsoft.


In both, Gates designing an algorithm for sorting pancakes as a solution to one of a series of problems that have not terpecahkandalam combinatorics class by Harry Lewis, one of his professors. Gates Solutions holds the record for the fastest version for 30 years; his successor was more rapid one percent saja.Solusinya was inaugurated in printed form in collaboration with the Harvard computer scientist Christos Papadimitriou.
Gates has no plans to learn it as a student at Harvard and spent much time using the school computers. Gates is still communicating with Paul Allen, and she joined him at Honeywell in the summer of 1974. The following year, MITS Altair 8800 based on the Intel 8080 CPU launched, and Gates and Allen saw the launch as an opportunity to establish its own computer software. [30] He had discussed this decision with his parents are very supportive once they see the enthusiasm to establish the Gates company.


Microsoft




BASIC

After reading the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics that demonstrated the Altair 8800, Gates contacted Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), the creator of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and his friends are working on a BASIC interpreter for use as platformnya.Kenyataannya, Gates and Allen did not have computers and do not write sebarispun Altair BASIC code, they just want to make MITS interested. MITS president Ed Roberts agreed to meet them to see the demo, and in the next few weeks they developed an Altair emulator operates on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. The demonstration, held at MITS's offices in Albuquerque was successful and resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the interpreter as Altair BASIC was. Paul Allen was hired at MITS, and Gates out of Harvard to work with Allen at MITS in Albuquerque in November 1975. They named their partnership "Micro-Soft" and established its first office in Albuquerque.Satu next year, a hyphen in his name removed, and on 26 November 1976, the trade name "Microsoft" is registered in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs New Mexico. Gates never went back to Harvard to complete his studies.


Microsoft BASIC is known by computer enthusiasts, but Gates was later discovered that the pre-market copy had leaked into the community and continues to be widely copied and distributed. On February 1976, Gates wrote the Open Letter to Hobbyists in the MITS news letter stating that MITS can not continue to manufacture, distribute, and maintain high-quality software without paying.

This letter was welcomed by many fans cool the computer, but Gates maintains his belief that software developers should be able to charge a fee. Microsoft free of MITS in late 1976, and the company continues to develop programming language software for various sistem.Perusahaan is moved from Albuquerque to its new kanor in Bellevue, Washington on January 1, 1979.
In the early years of Microsoft, all employees have a great responsibility on the company's business. Gates oversaw the business details as well as writing the code. In the first five years, Gates personally review every line of code the company shipped, and often rewrote parts of the code to make it look right.


Partnership with IBM


In 1980, IBM persuade Microsoft to write a BASIC interpreter for the rest of their personal computers, IBM PC. When IBM's representatives mentioned that they needed an operating system, Gates gave a referral to Digital Reserach (DRI), makers of the operating system CP / M which is widely used in the IBM itu.Diskusi with Digital Research did not work, and they do not reach a licensing agreement. IBM representative Jack Sams mentioned the licensing difficulties permission at the next meeting with Gates and told him to find a decent operating system.


A few weeks later Gates plans to use 86-DOS (QDOS), an operating system similar to CP / M software is made by Tim Paterson of Seattle Computer Products (SCP) is the same as PC. Microsoft made a deal with SCP to become the executive agent license, and then the absolute owner of 86-DOS. After adapting the operating system for PC, Microsoft delivered it to IBM PC-DOS in the form of a fee in exchange for $ 50,000. Gates did not offer a transfer of copyright is the operating system, because he believes other software manufacturers will emulate IBM system. They were right, and sales of MS-DOS made Microsoft a major player in the computer industry.
Gates oversaw Microsoft's company restructuring on June 25, 1981 the company re-incorporate in the state of Microsoft and made Gates President and Chairman of Microsoft.


Windows

Microsoft launched its first retail version of Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985, and in August, the company reached an agreement with IBM to develop a separate operating system called OS / 2. Although the two companies successfully developed the first version of this system, creative differences undermine this cooperation. Gates issued an internal memo on May 16, 1991 which announced that the joint OS / 2 ended and shifting their operations to the Microsoft Windows NT kernel development.


Management style

Since its founding Microsoft in 1975 to 2006, Gates has a big responsibility towards the company's product strategy. He has aggressively expanded the company's product lineup, and when Microsoft managed to dominate the market it hard to defend. He gained a reputation as someone who shy away from the hotel; in early 1981 an industry executives complained to the public that "Gates is famous for can not be contacted by phone and did not return phone calls.


As an executive, Gates met regularly with senior managers and program manager for Microsoft. Some of the direct recognition of this meeting said Gates as the man who strikes with the words, berating managers knowing there was a hole there is a business strategy or proposal that put their company's long-term plans in the balance. He often cut off the presentation with comments like, "That's the stupidest thing I've ever heard and," You'd better return and join the Corps opsimu Perdamaian.Target anger is to defend the proposal to the smallest detail of his subordinates sepenuhnya.Ketika Gates looks to delay his work , Gates is known to express sarcastic words, "I'll do it next weekend.


Much of Gates' role at Microsoft only handles the management and executive duties. Even so, he is an active software developer in its early years, especially in the programming language Microsoft products. He also unofficially became part of the development team since working on the TRS-80 Model 100, and also wrote the code at the end of 1989 were included in the company's products. On June 15, 2006, Gates announced that he would discontinue its daily work during the next two years to focus on philanthropic activities. He divides his duty to his two successors, namely Ray Ozzie on the daily management and Craig Mundie on the long-term product strategy.
Demands of unfair competition
More information: Microsoft antitrust case United States and European Union Microsoft competition case


There are many decisions that lead to unfair competition claims on Microsoft's business practices are approved by Gates. In the case of United States v. Microsoft in 1998, Gates gave testimony that tended to avoid recognition questions. He argued with investigator David Boies about the contextual meaning of words such as "Compete" (competing), "concerned" (worrying), and "we" (we / us). BusinessWeek reports:


The first round of deposition showed Gates gave a vague answer and say 'I do not remember,' over and over until the judge gave a little laugh. Worse, a lot of denial and defensiveness "no idea" answered the head of the technology is disputed by the prosecution to show the parts that are sent and received e-mail Gates.

Gates later said that he should resist efforts Boies to misinterpret the words and actions. Testimony about his behavior when he said, "Did I dodge the question Boies? ... (Yes), I plead guilty. Whatever the punishment should be meted to me: (above) which is to Boies irreverence." Although Gates meyangkal, the judge ruled that Microsoft have made monopolization and binding, and inhibit competition, and violated the Sherman Antitrust Act.


The appearance of the advertisement


Gates appeared in several ads promoting Microsoft in 2008. The first ad, also starring Jerry Seinfeld, is a 90-second conversation when Seinfeld goes in front of a discount shoe store (Shoe Circus) in a mall and see Gates buy shoes in the store. The salesman tried to sell shoes one size larger numbers to Gates. When Gates paid him, he held a discount card that displays the edited version of his face when the photo was captured in New Mexico in 1977 due to past violations lintas.Ketika they both walked out of the mall, Seinfeld asks Gates if he has his thoughts together with other developers, having answered yes, he asked again whether they are working to make computers that can be eaten, and Gates said yes. Some people say that this ad is a tribute to the show Seinfeld is "mediocre" (Seinfeld).  In the second ad, Gates and Seinfeld to stay at home and a middle class family trying to cope with ordinary people.


Post-Microsoft

Since leaving Microsoft, Gates continued filantropinya activity and, among other projects, bought the rights to video serial Messenger Lectures entitled The Character of Physical Law, delivered at Cornell University by Richard Feynman in 1964 and recorded by the BBC. The videos are available to the public online in Microsoft Project Tuva.
On April 2010, Gates was invited to visit and deliver lectures at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He asked the students to deal with the problems of the world that awaits them in the future.


Personal life


Gates married Melinda French on January 1, 1994. They had three children: Jennifer Katharine Gates (born 1996), Rory John Gates (born 1999) and Phoebe Adele Gates (born 2002). Gates family home was a dugout in the side of a hill overlooking Lake Washington in Medina. According to King County public records, in 2006 the total value of property (land and house) Gates family is $ 125 million, and annual property taxes of $ 991,000.


Home of 66,000 ft ² (6.100 m²) has a pool area of ​​60-foot (18 m) with an underwater music system, as well as the gymnasium area of ​​2500 ft ² (230 m²) and a dining area of ​​1,000 ft ² (93 m²).
Included among Gates' private acquisitions is the Codex Leicester, a collection of writings that Leonardo da Vinci, which Gates bought for $ 30.8 million through the auction in 1994. Gates is also known as a bookworm, and the ceiling of the library in his home filled with carved quotations from The Great Gatsby.  He also enjoys playing bridge, tennis, and golf.


Gates is ranked first on Forbes 400 list from 1993 to 2007 and ranked number one on the list of The World's Richest People Forbes from 1995 to 2007 and 2009. In 1999, the wealth of Gates never exceeded $ 101 billion, resulting in the media called it a "centibillionaire". Since 2000, the number of nominal shares in Microsoft declined due to the falling price of Microsoft shares after the outbreak of the dot-com bubble and the contribution of multi-billion dollars to various charities. At an interview in May 2006, Gates commented that he is not the richest person in the world because he does not like attention arising from the title. [64] Gates has several investments outside Microsoft who in 2006 menggajinya of $ 616,667 and bonus of $ 350,000 bringing the total reached $ 966,667. He founded Corbis, a digital image, in 1989. In 2004 he became director of Berkshire Hathaway, the investment company headed by his old friend, Warren Buffett.  In March 2010, Bill Gates was ranked second as the richest man in the world after losing to Carlos Slim.


Philanthropy

Jordan, a former United Kingdom Prime Minister Gordon Brown, President Umaru Yar'Adua of Nigeria and other participants in the 'Call to Action on the Millennium Development Goals' on the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 208 in Davos, Switzerland
Further information: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Gates began to appreciate the expectations of the people against him when public opinion goes on to say that Gates is able to contribute part of his fortune to charity. Gates studied the work of Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller, and in 1994 he sold part of its stake in Microsoft to establish the William H. Gates Foundation. In 2000, Gates and his wife combine into one of three family foundations and charitable foundations formed the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, which is now a charitable foundation that operates transparently in the world. This foundation allows the donor to access information about how the foundation spent money, unlike other major charitable organizations such as the Wellcome Trust.Kedermawanan and David Rockefeller philanthropy has been widely recognized as a major influence of this foundation. Gates and his father met with Rockefeller several times and imitate some of the ways of distribution at the focus of the Rockefeller family philanthropies, especially the global problems that are ignored by governments and organizations lain.Pada in 2007, Bill and Melinda Gates is the second most generous philanthropist in Amerka States, with donations to charity as much as $ 28 billion.


At the same time the foundation was criticized for investing the assets are not distributed with the exclusive purpose of maximizing investment pulangan. As a result, they include investment firms accused of exacerbating poverty in developing countries are actually trying to be reduced by the existence of this foundation. Their investments include companies that produce lots of pollution, and pharmaceutical companies that did not sell its products to countries berkembang.Sebagai response to criticism of the press, in 2007 the foundation has announced a review of all investments to assess the responsibility of this sosialnya.Yayasan then cancel the review and maintain an investment policy for pulangan maximum, and the use of voting rights to influence corporate practices.
Gates's wife invites the public to learn from family philanthropy efforts Salwen, who sold his house and donate half its value, as mentioned in the book The Power of Half. Gates and his wife Joan Salwen invited to Seattle to talk about things that are done by the family, and on December 9, 2010, Gates, investor Warren Buffett, and Mark Zuckerberg (Facebook CEO) signed a pledge that they called the "Gates-Buffet Giving Pledge ". Their contents are pledged to donate half their wealth to charity in stages.


Appreciation

In 1987, Gates was officially declared as a billionaire in page 400 Richest People in America by Forbes magazine, a few days before the birthday-32. As the youngest billionaire in the world of their own business, wealth reached $ 1.25 billion, $ 900 million more than the previous year, when he entered the first time in this list.
Time magazine named Gates as one of the 100 most influential people in the 20th century, and one of 100 most influential people in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Time also collectively named Gates, his wife Melinda and U2 lead singer Bono as Persons of the Year 2005 for their humanitarian efforts. In 2006, he was ranked eighth in the list of "Heroes of our time".  Gates entered the Sunday Times list of the most powerful men in 1999, named CEO of the Year by Chief Executive Officers magazine in 1994, ranked first in the list of "Top 50 Cyber ​​Elite "by Time in 1998, ranking second in the Upside Elite 100 in 1999 and described by The Guardian in the list of" Top 100 Influential people in media "in 2001.


In 1994, he was honored as a Distinguished Fellow at the 20th British Computer Society. Gates has received his doctorate from Nyenrode Business Universiteit respect, Breukelen, The Netherlands, on tahunn 2000; [83] Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden in 2002; was invited in 2003 to deliver lectures in front of the essence of the Golden Jubilee of Indian Institute of Technology, held in San Jose, California [85]; Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan on tahunn 2005; Tsinghua University, Beijing, China, in April 2007; [86] Harvard University in June 2007; Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, in January 2008, [88] and Cambridge University in June 2009.  He also made an honorary member in Peking University also awarded honorary degrees 2007.Gates Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in 2005. The entomologist also give the name of Bill Gates flower, Eristalis gatesi, as a mark of respect.


On November 2006, he and his wife were awarded the Order of the Aztec Eagle for their philanthropic activities worldwide in the fields of health and education, especially in Mexico, and precisely in the program "Un País de lectores". In October 2009, announced Gates was awarded the 2010 Bower Award for Business Leadership from the Franklin Institute for his achievements in business and filantropinya activity. In 2010, he received the Silver Buffalo Award from the Boy Scouts of America, the highest award for adults, for his services to the youth.

Martin Cooper - Inventor of the First Mobile

Martin Cooper

Martin Cooper is the inventor of the mobile phone itself does not envision that mobile phones can be as small as this now so it can be taken anywhere in accordance with the needs and demands in today's wireless age. Martin Marty Cooper (born December 26, 1928 in Chicago, Illinois, USA) which is the leader of a team of Motorola engineers who developed the mobile handheld devices are different from car phones (Car Phone). Cooper is the CEO and founder of ArrayComm, a company working in Smart Antenna technology research and develop a wireless network, and is a director of Motorola Research and Development.


The Early

Martin Cooper grew up in Chicago when the world recession. His parents were Ukrainian immigrants. He received a bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering in 1950.

Career

Martin Cooper joined the Reserve Officers Training Corps United States Navy. He served in the U.S. Navy destroyer during the Korean War and later in a submarine based in Hawaii.

After the war, Cooper left the Navy and began working on the Teletype, a subsidiary of Western Electric. In 1954, he moved to Motorola. While working there he continued his studies at night. In 1957, he received a Masters degree in electrical engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology.

In 1960 he was instrumental in changing the sheets that were previously limited to the information technology used in a single building that could become more widespread inter-city link. Cooper helped fix the defects in the crystal Motorola made for radio. This prompted the company to mass produce the first quartz crystal to be used in quartz watches.

In 1960, John F. Mitchell became chief project engineer for Motorola portable communications. In the early 1970's, Mitchell gave the responsibility of the division of Cooper in a car phone (Carphone). Mitchell and Cooper envisioned a communications product that not only stuck in the car. So that the tool must be small and light enough to be portable devices. It took 90 days in 1972 to create the first prototype of the idea.

Cooper and the engineers who worked for him, and Mitchell patented invention "Radio Telephone System", filed on October 17, 1973 with patent number 3,906,166 in September 1975 and approved on their behalf. Cooper considered the inventor of the first handheld cellular phone (mobile) and the first The first prototype of mobile phones to make calls to cellular phones are on 3 April 1973. the historic event was witnessed in public in front of journalists and passers-by on the streets of New York. first call is addressed to Dr. Joel S. Engel, head of research at Bell Labs.

The first sentence is pronounced "Joel, I'm calling you from a 'real' cellular telephone. A portable handheld telephone."

The first call as early marker of the beginning of a fundamental shift in technology and communications market in the direction of the portable telephone communication in which one can directly communicate directly with other people, no longer as of yore in which the destination is a place as a phone
home. This is the work of the results of his vision for personal wireless mobile communication that sets it apart from the car phone (car phones). Cooper later revealed that he got the idea to develop the phones after watching Captain Kirk using a communicator device on Star Trek television series.

Although dubbed as the 'Father of Cellular Telephone (Cell Phone)', with humility Martin Cooper says "Even though I'm part of the invention, but the work is the work of teams and hundreds of literary people who create a vision of how mobile as today, which of course not perfect. We are still working and trying to make it better ".


Product Commercialization

The first Motorola DynaTAC handset, has a weight of 1 kg (2.2 pounds) and 35 minutes of talk time. In 1983, after four iterations, Cooper team has reduced the weight of the handset in half. Product price is approximately $ 4,000 (or equal in value to $ 8,600 in 2009). Cooper Leaving Motorola before they start selling mobile phones to consumers.

Cellular Business Systems

Martin Cooper started a company with partners who provide the service provider's billing system. In 1986, they sold the Cincinnati Bell for $ 23m.

ArrayComm

In 1992, Martin Cooper joined Richard Roy, a researcher at Stanford University, to form ArrayComm. The company began to specialize in the creation of a more efficient mobile communications. While leading this company, Cooper created the Cooper Law (Cooper's Law). This law states that every 30 months the amount of information transmitted over a certain amount over the radio spectrum has doubled. He stated that this law has been in force since 1897, when Marconi patents the wireless telegraph was the first time.

Awards and Affiliations

In 1995, Martin Cooper received the Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award for innovation in communications technology. Cooper is also a member of Mensa International. In 2000 Martin Cooper include Top Ten Entrepreneurs in Red Herring magazine. In 2009, he along with Raymond Tomlinson was awarded the Prince of Asturias, an award for scientific research and technical studies.

"Wireless is freedom. It's about being unleashed from the telephone cord and having the ability to be virtually anywhere when you want to be. That freedom is what cellular is all about. It pleases me no end to have had some small impact on people's lives Because these phones do the make people's lives better. They promotes productivity, They Make people more comfortable, They Make them feel safe and all of Those Things. In the sense I had a small contribution there makes me feel very good "(Martin Marty Cooper)

Nikolaus Otto ,Inventor of The Internal Combustion Engine From Germany

Nikolaus Otto

Nikolaus August Otto (June 14, 1832 - 28 January 1891) is the inventor of the internal combustion engine of German origin. As a young man he began experimenting with gas engines and in 1864 took part with two friends to form his own company. The company was named after N. A. Otto & Cie., Which is the first company to produce internal combustion engines. The company still exists today under the name Deutz AG.

His first atmospheric engine was completed in May 1867. 5 years later he was followed by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach and together they created the idea of ​​four-stroke cycle or Otto cycle.
First made in 1876, it was a movement up or down on the piston cylinder. Otto made ​​a patent does not apply in 1886 when it was discovered that another inventor, Alphonse Beau de Rochas, has made the principle of rotation 4 was published in a leaflet alone. According to the study of recent history, Italian inventors Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci patented the first version of the efficient work of the internal combustion engine in 1854 in London (patent number 1072). Otto engine in many ways the least inspired of the discovery.

Biography of Igor Sikorsky

Igor Sikorsky

Igor Sikorsky was born on May 25, 1889, in Kiev (Ukraine), he is one of the pioneers and inventors of the helicopter. Igor is the youngest of five brothers. His father, Ivan Alexeevich Sikorsky is a professor of psychology, a descendant of Poland - Russia. Ivan is the son and grandson of the Russian Orthodox priest. Igor Sikorsky mother, Mariya Stefanovna Sikorskaya is a doctor, igor very fond of art, especially in the life and work of Leonardo da Vinci and Jules Verne story.


In 1900, at age 11, he accompanied his father to Germany and through conversations with his father, he became interested in natural science. After returning home, Sikorsky began to experiment with model flying machines, and at the age of 12, he has made a small rubber band-powered helicopter. Sikorsky began studying at the Naval Academy, Saint Petersburg Russia, in 1903, at age 14. In 1906, he determined that his future lay in engineering, so he resigned from the Academy, although satisfactory performance in the academy, and he left Russia to study in Paris. He returned to Russia in 1907, enrolled at the College of Engineering (Polytechnic Institute of Kiev). After the academic year, Sikorsky returned with his father to Germany in the summer of 1908, where he learned about the work of the Wright brothers, Sikorsky later said that:

"In twenty-four hours, I decided to change my life's work, I will study the flight .."
With financial support from her sister Olga, Sikorsky returned to Paris in 1909 to study aeronautics at the Flight School "Ecole des Techniques et de Construction Automobile Aéronautiques (ETACA)" and purchase aircraft parts. At that time, Paris was the center of aviation. Sikorsky met the aviation pioneer, and ask them to answer questions about aircraft and flying. In May 1909, he returned to Russia and began designing his first helicopter, he began testing in July 1909. Although progress in resolving the technical issues of control, Sikorsky realized that the plane will never fly. He eventually dismantle the aircraft design in October 1909.
"I've learned enough to realize that with the existing state of the art, machine, material, and of all of them ranging from lack of money and lack of experience ... I will not be able to produce a helicopter of my dreams"
In early 1912, Igor Sikorsky became Chief Engineer of the division plane to Russko Baltiisky Vagonny ZAVOD or R-BVZ in Saint Petersburg. His work in the R-BVZ including construction mesinm first four aircraft, S-21 Russky Vityaz, which is called Le Grand. He also served as experimenters first flight on May 13, 1913. In recognition of his achievements, he was awarded an honorary degree in engineering from the Polytechnic Institute of Saint Petersburg in 1914. Sikorsky took the experience of building Russky Vityaz to develop the S-22 aircraft Ilya Muromets. Due to the outbreak of World War I, he redesigned the bombers the world's first four-engine, which is decorated with the Order of St. Vladimir.

After World War I, Igor Sikorsky briefly became an engineer for the French army in Russia during the Russian Civil War. He saw little chance for him to be an aircraft designer in the war in Europe, and especially Russia, later, he emigrated to the United States, and arrived in New York on March 30, 1919.

In the United States, Sikorsky first worked as a school teacher and lecturer, while looking for opportunities to work in the aviation industry. In 1932, he joined the faculty of the University of Rhode Island to form the Aeronautical Engineering program and remain with the University until 1948. He also lectures at the University of Bridgeport.

In 1923, Sikorsky Sikorsky Manufacturing Company established in Roosevelt, New York. He was assisted by several former Russian military officer. Among the supporters was Sergei Rachmaninoff Sikorsky, who introduced himself by writing a check for U.S. $ 5,000, or about $ 61,000 in 2007. Although the prototype is damaged in the first flight test, Sikorsky persuaded supporters to invest $ 2,500. With additional funding, he produced the S-29, one of the first twin-engine aircraft in America, with capacity for 14 passengers and the speed of 115 mph. Performance of S-29, slower than the military aircraft in 1918.

In 1928, Sikorsky became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Sikorsky Manufacturing Company moved to Stratford, Connecticut in 1929. and became part of United Aircraft and Transport (now United Technologies Corporation) in July of that year. The company is producing airplanes, such as the "Clipper" 42-S, used by Pan Am for trans-Atlantic flight.



Meanwhile, Sikorsky also continue to work on a previous vertical flight. On February 14, 1929, he filed a patent for the application of "direct lift" for seaplanes. On June 27, 1931, Sikorsky filed a patent for the other "direct lift aircraft", and was awarded patent number 1,994,488 on March 19, 1935 on rencanganya design. and ultimately, success with Sikorsky VS-300 leads to R-4, which became the first helicopter in the world of mass produced in 1942. VS-300 finally by Sikorsky in the configuration using the rotor, which consists of a single main rotor and tail rotor antitorque single, and became one of the most popular helicopter models, the most widely used in current production and Sikorsky helicopter called the inventor calls modern helicopter.

Sikorsky is married to Olga Fyodorovna Simkovitch in Russia. They divorced and Olga remained in Russia with their daughter and Sikorsky went to America before the October Revolution. Sikorsky married Elisabeth Semion in 1924, in New York, Sikorsky and Elisabeth then have four sons Sergei, Nikolai, Igor Jr. and George.


Sikorsky died at his home in Easton, Connecticut, on October 26, 1972, and was buried in Saint John's Cemetery in Stratford. Sikorsky has been designated a Connecticut Aviation Pioneer by the Connecticut State Legislature. Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation in Stratford Connecticut, to this day one of the world's leading manufacturer of helicopters, and a small airport nearby Sikorsky Memorial Airport has been named.

Kary Banks Mullis Biography

Kary Banks Mullis

Kary Banks Mullis was born on December 28, 1944 in Lenoir, North Carolina, United States. He grew up his parents, Cecil Banks Mullis and Bernice Alberta Barker, and live near a farm owned by her paternal grandfather. Mullis lives attached to a small village atmosphere filled with hard work. Chemical he achieved a bachelor's degree from Georgia Tech. While a doctorate in biochemistry from the University of receipt Carolina, Berkeley, in 1973, having successfully defended his thesis entitled "Schizokinen: Synthetic Structures and Work".


In 1979, Mullis joined the Cetus Corporation in Emeryville Carolina as a researcher after several times through an internship at the University of Kansas medical school. While working in this place that the idea of ​​building Mullis PCR. Interestingly, not a brilliant idea came when he was struggling in the laboratory, but it came at a time when he was in the car Honda Civicnya on the way from San Francisco to Mendocino approximately 1985. "Thought and the best ideas I came mostly when I'm driving," he said. Not in vain, thinking that's genius that later led Mullis became a Nobel laureate in chemistry in 1993.

Mullis discovery of the polymerase chain reaction really is one of the pillars of the revolution in molecular genetics. These techniques allow new approaches in the study and analysis of genes. PCR allows scientists to create a series of genetic material that is long enough for a study or research interests.

As already known, previously, the main problem in the molecular analysis of a gene is an object of study is quite difficult, considering the number of genes in a living body. Especially in mammals that have more than one hundred thousand genes. A variety of techniques in molecular genetics aimed to address this issue. The technique generally requires a relatively long time, including cloning and DNA sequence of a typical tracking-procedures that are very difficult and time consuming. PCR has allowed us to obtain a specific DNA sequence without cloning.

Mullis method is simple, but very effective. This PCR technique exploiting the nature of DNA replication. The first step, heating the sample Mullis DNA double fiber at temperatures near the boiling point for
get two DNA strands of a single fiber. Then he added two short sequence of DNA that is bound to end their respective complementary strands. It marks the place of the desired nucleotide sequence Mullis.

Then, he adds free nucleotides and the polymerase enzyme (a protein that can speed up a chemical reaction), and then joined the target nucleotide. In short, the PCR technique allows the polymerase-DNA work can be directed to the synthesis of a specific DNA region. Furthermore Mullis can easily make copies of the desired DNA sequence by performing the process repeatedly. This process allows Mullis to make millions of DNA copies in just a few hours.

Before you get a gift Nobel, Mullis also received numerous awards, including the Thomas A. Edison Award (1993), the California Scientist of the Year Award (1992), the National Biotechnology Award (1991), the Gairdner Award, Toronto, Canada (1991), the R & D Scientist of the Year (1991), the William Allan Memorial Award of the American Society of Human Genetics (1990), and the Preis Biochemische Analytik of the German Society of Clinical Chemistry and Boehringer Mannheim (1990).

In 1986, scientists also have a hobby of surfing is a director of molecular biology in Xytronyx Inc., A manufacturer of plastic in San Diego, California. And since 1988 he worked as a freelance consultant for several companies, as well as lecturer of biotechnology and the development of science in various universities around the world. Mullis had compiled a book titled Dancing Naked in the Mind Field, published in 1998.

In the book, Mullis writes with a style full of humor, but serious, about various things. Starting from the scientific method to parapsychology, from poisonous spiders to HIV / AIDS, from global warming to astrology, from the OJ case Simpson to how to restore the flame bulbs in mind

Mullis is currently actively involved in research on the relationship between the virus HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). Mullis was diligently reading any book, even though their fields are not included. He thought he was diligently reading can talk to anyone about anything. For him to be one of the nobel prize recipient has the responsibility and work very hard so homes can still exist and respect of others. Now, Mullis lived with his wife, Nancy Cosgrove Mullis, Newport Beach and the Anderson Valley, California, USA.